Ok Tedi Mine

The Ok Tedi Mine is a gold and copper open-pit mine located in the Star Mountains of Papua New Guinea. Gold and copper have a multitude of uses. Both are called currency metals since they have been used to make money for thousands of years. Gold is a highly efficient conductor of electricity and is used in most electronic devices. Because gold does not tarnish it is used in switches, relay contacts, and connectors so they are free of corrosion. Copper is used in construction, power generation and transmission, electronic product manufacturing, and the production of industrial machinery and transportation vehicles. Copper is an essential component in the motors, wiring, radiators, connectors, brakes, and bearings used in cars and trucks.

The Ok Tedi Mine is an open-pit mine, which means that the minerals and the native rock is extracted from large tracts of land. The mine uses techniques such as blasting and drilling to extract the rock (Kentucky Coal Education) ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). The excavated rock is then crushed into 200 mm pieces by gyratory crushers, then ground into sand on a grinding circuit including “semi-autogenous grinding mills and ball mills”  ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). The ore is then placed in flotation cells with reagents that create air bubbles that separate the copper and gold from the other materials. These compounds then float to the surface and are able to be collected  ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea"). It is then sent through a pipeline to the Kiunga river port and is transported to consumers  ("OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea").

According to the WWF, “Up to 80,000 tonnes of waste rock and 120,000 tonnes of tailings are disgorged from the Ok Tedi/Fly River system - every day. In addition, 30 million tonnes of tailing ‘fine sand’ are discharged annually into local rivers.” (WWF) This disrupts the lives of those downstream from the mine. Because the river is so polluted from the mine, locals can no longer sell fish and garden produce. “In the past, Ok Tedi’s reports revealed that fish stocks in the upper Ok Tedi had declined between 50% and 80% from pre-mining levels.” (WWF) The Yonngom, a group of about 4500, were especially disrupted due to pollution from the mine.

Despite the extremely negative impacts of the Ok Tedi Mine, there is potential for the degraded areas to recover and the mine to run more eco-friendly. In 1996, The Broken Hill Proprietary and indigenous leaders reached a settlement that included a binding agreement that BHP and the Ok Tedi mine to become the first mine to not release tailings directly into rivers. However, a first tailings mine was destroyed and the mine agreed to not build another one. Additionally, the mine does not follow government policies, which are not enforced in the first place. If the Ok Tedi Mine begins to follow policies and put in significant efforts to clean up and prevent pollution, it may become an acceptable mine.

Agency, Environmental Protection. “What Is Acid Mine Drainage.” Sos Blue Waters. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.sosbluewaters.org/epa-what-is-acid-mine-drainage%5B1%5D.pdf>.

“Basics of an Open Pit Mine.” mine-engineer.com. mine-engineer.com, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.mine-engineer.com/mining/open_pit.htm>.

“BHP Billiton Withdraws from Ok Tedi Copper Mine and Establishes Development Fund for Benefit of Papua New Guinea People.” BHP Billiton. BHP Billiton, 8 Feb. 2002. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.bhpbilliton.com/home/investors/news/Pages/Articles/BHP%20Billiton%20Withdraws%20from%20Ok%20Tedi%20Copper%20Mine%20and%20Establishes%20Development%20Fund%20for%20Benefit%20of%20Papua%20New%20Guinea.aspx>.

Bice, Sarah. “Ok Tedi Immunity Gone, with Implications beyond BHP.” The Conversation. Conversation US, 22 Oct. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://theconversation.com/ok-tedi-immunity-gone-with-implications-beyond-bhp-19188>.

Burton, Bob. “BHP Admits Ok Tedi Mine is Environmental Disaster.” Asia Times. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.atimes.com/oceania/AH13Ah01.html>.

Campbell, Ian. “Ok Tedi Mine – Leaving Time Bombs on the Fly River Floodplain.” River Symposium. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://archive.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=CAMPBELL_IANppt>.

“The Coinage Metals: Copper, Silver, and Gold.” ChemWiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Inorganic_Chemistry/Descriptive_Chemistry/d-Block_Elements/Group_11%3A_Transition_Metals/The_Coinage_Metals%3A_Copper,_Silver,_and_Gold>.

“Facts About Copper.” Geology.com. Geology.com, Jan. 2014. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://geology.com/usgs/uses-of-copper/>.

Fox, Liam. “PNG Government Takes Control of Ok Tedi Mine, Repeals Laws Protecting BHP from Legal Action over Pollution.” ABC News. ABC, 19 Sept. 2013. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-09-19/png-government-takes-control-of-png-ok-tedi-mine/4967004>.

Garrett, Jemima. “New Profit and Ownership Woes at PNG’s Ok Tedi Gold Mine.” ABC News. ABC, 10 Mar. 2014. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-03-10/png-ok-tedi-woes/5310896>.

“Glossary of Mining Terms.” Kentucky Coal Education. Kentucky Foundation, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.coaleducation.org/glossary.htm#B>.

Lonely Planet. Lonely Planet, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.lonelyplanet.com/papua-new-guinea/gulf-and-western-provinces/daru/sights/historic/ok-tedi-mine>.

“The Many Uses of Gold.” US Funds. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.usfunds.com/slideshows/the-many-uses-of-gold/#.VQcOJWTF9Ex>.

“OK Tedi Mine, Oceania, Papua New Guinea.” Mining-Technology.com. Kable, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/ok-tedi-mine/>.

Ok Tedi Mining. Ok Tedi Mining, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.oktedi.com/>.

“Ok Tedi, Papua New Guinea.” World Wide Fund for Nature. World Wide Fund for Nature, n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/new_guinea_forests/problems_forests_new_guinea/mining_new_guinea/ok_tedi_forest_new_guinea/>.

“Papua New Guinea’s Government Opens New Controversy regarding the Ok Tedi Mine.” Mining Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Mar. 2015. <http://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/png-makes-bhp-liable-for-environmental-damage-from-mine>.

“Papua New Guinea’s Government Opens New Controversy regarding the Ok Tedi Mine.” Mining Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/png-makes-bhp-liable-for-environmental-damage-from-mine>.

“Waste from Consumption and Production - The Ok Tedi Case: A Pot of Gold.” GRID Ardenal. GRID-Ardenal, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2859.aspx>.

“Papua New Guinea’s Government Opens New Controversy regarding the Ok Tedi Mine.” Mining Examiner. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. <http://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/png-makes-bhp-liable-for-environmental-damage-from-mine>.

“Waste from Consumption and Production - The Ok Tedi Case: A Pot of Gold.” GRID Ardenal. GRID-Ardenal, n.d. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2859.aspx>.

Biodiversity Hotspots: the California Floristic Province

Biodiversity encompasses many different subjects, but it is mainly the variety of life and different species in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystems. Many people think that a biodiversity hotspot is an area that is high in biodiversity, but that is not the case. Along with being reservoirs of biodiversity and having high amounts of species, a biodiversity hotspot is also an area that has been seriously disrupted by human activities and has species that are in danger of extinciton. For our hotspot we chose the California Floristic Province. The CFP is a biodiversity hotspot because it has species that are found nowhere else in the world and it has been harmed by human activities.

A food web of a redwood forest, one
of the many habitats of the CFP
(We're All in This Together 2014). 

The CFP is located mostly in California with parts in Oregon and Mexico (California Floristic Province 2014). The CFP is home to an abundant amount of biodiversity. Ecological biodiversity include sagebrush steppe, prickly pear shrubland, coastal sage scrub, chaparral, juniper-pine woodland, upper montane-subalpine forest, alpine forest, riparian forest, cypress forests, mixed evergreen forests, Douglas fir forests, sequoia forests, redwood forests, coastal dunes, salt marshes (Hogan 2009). These habitats are where the biodiversity of the Province live. The Floristic Province’s area and diverse landscape enable it to have a thriving plant population, 61% of which is endemic. Most of the species diversity comes from plants: there are 3,488 species, and the next largest group (mammals) consists of 127 species (Hogan 2009). The following table shows the species biodiversity of the CFP.

Diversity and Endemism
Taxonomic Group	Species	Endemic Species	Percent Endemism
Plants	3,488	2,124	60.9
Mammals	157	18	11.5
Birds	340	8	2.4
Reptiles	69	4	5.8
Amphibians	46	25	54.3
Freshwater Fishes	73	15	20.5

(Hogan 2009). The Province also provides an abundance of ecosystem services. The flora in the

A map of the CFP
(Hogan 2009).

California Floristic Province has been used in a variety of way to support many industries. The Monterey pine, native conifers, and coastal redwoods are all pillars of the wood industry, and sugar pines and giant sequoias were once widely used (Hogan 2009). “Economically and socially important benefits include moderation of local climate, protection of watersheds and water resources, flood abatement, nonpoint source pollution abatement, habitat for wild pollinators of food crops, habitat for a diverse non-game fauna that includes many rare and endangered species, critical links in the Pacific flyway, commercial and recreational fisheries, large and small game for hunters, many forms of passive recreation and opportunities for education and research,” (California Floristic Province 2014).

Although biodiversity is high, the California Floristic Province has been the victim of degradation from human activities. For almost all of the causes of degradation, human population growth has been the underlying cause (California Floristic Province 2014). Causes of degradation include habitat conversion, overexploitation of resources, and forests (especially old growth) being logged faster than they can regenerate (California Floristic Province 2014). A large amount of natural land is being converted to cropland and land for urban development. “An estimated 1.7 million acres will be converted to agricultural uses and 1 million acres to urban and rural uses between about 1986 and 2000,” (California Floristic Province 2014). Additionally, invasive plant species such as Bromus, Cortaderia, Cytisus, Ilex, Mesymbryanthemum, Carpobrotus and Senecio mikanioides are outcompeting native plant species (California Floristic Province 2014).

The California condor, one of the CFP's
endangered species. (California Condor 2014)

Many pressures have led to the degradation of the CFP. The California Floristic Province provides fertile soil and water that allows the state to be the leading agricultural and forest product producer in the U.S. (California Floristic Province 2014). Pressures from the international wood industry, particularly demand from Australia and New Zealand, encourage the unsustainable use of resources in the Province (California Floristic Province 2014). The degradation of the Province has led to the endangerment of many species. There are 565 endangered animal species within the California Floristic Province, including the California condor, desert tortoise, green sea turtle, and elf owl. (State & Federally Listed Endangered & Threatened Animals of California 2014).

Although much of the Province has been degraded, there is still hope for restoration. 37% of the CFP is under official protection. Mechanisms for the preservation of land include near 50 wilderness areas; 16 national wildlife refuges; and 107 state parks (Hogan 2009). Additionally there are national parks such as Redwood, Yosemite, and Sequoia. In the past several decades California has set aside more land for preservation and spent more money on conservation than any other U.S. state, and “serves as an important reminder that biodiversity loss and the lack of complete and adequate protection for unique and threatened ecosystems is not just a problem in developing countries,” (Hogan 2009).

The California Floristic Province was once at its best, but became the victim of habitat loss and had many of its species become endangered. However, steps are being taken for its preservation and its restoration to what it used to be. If habits continue and improve, we may one day see the CFP as it once was, a land vast in biodiversity.

Works Cited

California Condor. USGS. USGS, n.d. Web. 9 Dec. 2014. 
     <http://gallery.usgs.gov/photos/ 05_31_2012_mRIt48Wkj1_05_31_2012_0#.VIhpozHF-So>. 

"California Floristic Province." Department of Botany. Smithsonian Institution,

    n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://botany.si.edu/projects/cpd/na/

    na16.htm>.

Hogan, C Michael. "Biological Diversity in the California Floristic Province."

    The Encyclopedia of Earth. Encyclopedia of Earth, 16 Dec. 2009. Web. 8

    Dec. 2014. <http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150634/>.

"State & Federally Listed Endangered & Threatened Animals of California."

    California Department of Fish and Wildlife. California Department of

    Fish and Wildlife, Oct. 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://www.dfg.ca.gov/

    biogeodata/cnddb/pdfs/TEAnimals.pdf>.

"We're All in This Together." Redwood National and State Parks. Redwood National

    and State Parks, n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014.

    <http://redwoodnationalandstateparks.weebly.com/food.html>.

Learning About Food Webs and Energy Pyramids Summary

From the "Learning About Food Webs and Energy Pyramids" activity, I learned about food chains and webs and the transfer of energy between organisms. The energy flow starts out in producers, who use photosynthesis to create food (glucose) for themselves, then use aerobic respiration to convert that food into energy. The producers are then eaten by consumers. Primary consumers eat producers, secondary consumers eat primary consumers, and tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. Additionally there are decomposers and detritivores which break down dead organisms and get energy from them. Energy is transferred through this chain, but each trophic level only gets ten percent of what it eats. So, plants have the most energy, and tertiary consumers receive the least. A food chain is a sequence of what consumes what consumes what, and a food web is several interconnected food chains. During the activity I learned about a food web in a biome, mine being a desert environment.

This is an example of a food web in a desert environment. There are the five different trophic levels and their interconnected energy transfers. Not all of the organisms share energy transfers since not all animals eat every single organism in the trophic level beneath it. Examples include prickly pear cacti as producers, rattlesnakes as secondary consumers, and termites as decomposers.

Works Cited:

Frey Scientific. Environmental Issues and Solutions Module Curriculum Guide. Nashua, New Hampshire: Frey Scientific, 2013. Print

Ecological Footprint Activity

From the ecological footprint activity, I learned that an ecological footprint is how many resources humans use compared to how fast ecosystems can replenish those resources. For instance, currently humans ecological footprint is 1.5 global hectares, so we use 1 1/2 earths. Obviously we don't have 1 1/2 earths, so we are living unsustainably and using resources faster than the world can supply them for us. I learned that I use about 4 earths in my average lifestyle, when I thought I used a lot less and lived more sustainably.